Essay on Risk Management Process - 1603 Words

Purpose The purpose of this Risk Management Process document is: †¢ To provide a framework to track and monitor project risks throughout the project lifecycle †¢ Establish roles and responsibilities of all participants in the process Scope This process will be used by the entire project team. As such, this document defines the Risk Management process and flow for a project. Description A risk is any factor that may potentially interfere with a successful completion of a project by having a negative impact to scope, cost, quality, or timeline/ schedule. A risk is not an issue – an issue has already occurred; a risk is the possibility that an issue might occur. By recognizing project risks, or potential issues, the Project†¦show more content†¦Risk monitoring will be managed by the project manager or designee and supported by all project team members. Risk Management Flow Roles and Responsibilities The following table represents the roles and responsibilities associated with tracking risks on a project: Role Responsibility Project Leadership †¢ Analyze and assess risks identified †¢ Attend risk meetings as scheduled †¢ Participate in: - Identifying, discussing, and clarifying new risks - Re-evaluating and updating current risks - Defining and modifying mitigation/contingency strategies for each risk - Present project point of view in developing risk mitigation strategies - Perform actions that reduce the exposure for a risk, focusing on probability, risk impact, or both - Assess risk mitigation activities, program and effectiveness; help refine these as necessary †¢ Final validation of risk owners †¢ Serve as risk owner, as assigned Project Manager or designee †¢ Facilitate the risk assessment processes of identification, assessment, mitigation †¢ Prompt risk owners as necessary for updates to assigned risks †¢ Manage and update the Risk Management Log †¢ Coordinate risk meetings †¢ Monitor overall status of project risks †¢ Escalate risks as appropriate †¢ Provide initial input to and assignment of risk owner as appropriate Risk Owner †¢ Perform research required to clarify and analyze risks †¢ Develop mitigation strategies and contingency plans †¢ Monitor status of individual riskShow MoreRelatedRisk Management Process Is Risk1436 Words   |  6 PagesRisk management is developed in order to reduce the likelihood of possible events that have negative effects for patients, staffs and the organization; to reduce the risk of death and injury or disease for patients, staffs, and others as result of services provided; to improve patient outcomes; to manage resources effectively; and to support legislative compliance and to ensure organizational viability and development. 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Tourism Destination Development Homecoming Scotland Free Essays

string(71) " regions like Greece or Egypt to learn the local language and culture\." Executive summary The subject of this report is the application of Butler’s Tourism Area Life Cycle for Scotland and also a critique of VisitScotland’s tourism destination development. The first section of the report presents the aim and objectives and the utilised methods of research. In the second chapter called â€Å"Tourism destination or destination tourism† are presented some preliminary theories regarding tourism destination as a market place. We will write a custom essay sample on Tourism Destination Development: Homecoming Scotland or any similar topic only for you Order Now The third section presents the evolution of travel and tourism, international tourism, and also tourism destinations. The fourth chapter consists of three subsections. The first one presents the theoretical background behind the main destination development models and their partial applications to Scotland. The second subsection presents the unique early stages of the Scottish tourism through Butler’s TALC model. The last subsection of the chapter objectively illustrates Scotland’s present and recent past development through the cycle and its potential entries to the new and final stage. The fifth and final chapter is focused on Scotland’s international market. The first subchapter demonstrates the rich Scottish heritage in North America. In the second subsection the US society and its generations are analysed to select the best US market for Scotland. The third subsection presents VisitScotland’s campaign for the American visitors called Homecoming Scotland, the results of the 2009 campaign and expectations from the 2014 one. Table of contents Executive summary 1 Table of contents 2 List of figures 4 1. 0Introduction 5 1. 1Background 5 1. 2Aims and objectives 5 1. 3Methods 5 2. 0Tourism destination or destination tourism? 3. 0History of International travel and tourism: From ancient festivals to outer space 6 4. 0The Tourism area life cycle (TALC): Theory and application for Scotland 9 4. 1TALC models and the concept of Tourist Area Cycle Evolution: Their application to Scotland 9 4. 2Scotland’s unique early cycle stages 11 4. 3Scotland’s tourism development and consolidation 14 5. 0Homecoming Scotland: Attracting the American market 16 5. 1Scottish Ancestry in North America 16 5. 2Scotland’s markets in the changing US society 17 5. Homecoming Scotland 2009 and 2014: Stagnating nationally, developing internationally 18 Conclusion 20 References 21 Bibliography 23 List of figures *Figure 1 copied from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/File:Culloden_Viaduct01_2007-08-22. jpg Representing a panoramic view of Cullodin Viaduct 10 *Fig. 2: Adapted from Butler’s â€Å"The Tourism Area Life Cycle Vol. 1: Applications and modifications†, about Tourism Area Life Cycle 14 *Fig. 3 International visitors in Scotland from International Caption Survey 17 Fig. 4: Adapted from clanstirling. org website about American Scottish 18 1. 0 Introduction 1. 1Background Each tourism destination area travels a life cycle. These cycles are adapted according to the destination type, but they are still subject to interpretation. Scotland has proved to be an important competitor in the tourism industry nationa lly and even internationally. The uniqueness in which Scotland travelled the first stages of the cycle and the numerous differences of cycle phase between regions and also markets makes it the one of the world’s most challenging destination area to develop. . 2Aims and objectives The aim of this report is to demonstrate using strong and logical arguments Scotland’s current place in the TALC cycle and also to analyse VisitScotland’s newest international and national market campaigns called ‘Homecoming Scotland’ and respectively ‘Surprise Yourself’. 1. 3Methods In the attempt of writing this report various sources have been used such as books and journals which focused on tourism destination development and also Scottish tourism. Moreover, electronic sources such as VisitScotland. com or HomecomingScotland2009. om were used for guidance along with accomplished knowledge accumulated throughout the Tourism Destination Development module. 2. 0Tourism destination or destination tourism? Tourists and tourism experience had both grown in the last 100 years. Tourists nowadays are increasingly discerning in their choice of holidays, in terms of both activities and destinations. These high expectations have been heightened by the tourism industry itself mainly due its outside competitiveness with other sectors and inside one between destinations to attract the potential tourists. The ‘age’ when destinations could simply make known their attractions by sitting back and await the arrival of visitors is far behind. Tourism plays an essential role for many people’s high-quality lifestyle. Today’s tourists have to be enticed by marketing destination’s place products effectively. â€Å"Communities are the recipient of tourists† (Heath and Wall 1992, p. 6), which is why most of the impacts of tourism occur on the community level. Yet, many communities, especially those whose economies are dominated by tourism, don’t have reliable tourism and marketing plans, or even any of these two components in their general plan. Places are ‘sold’ in a wide variety of consumer markets by private and public sector organisations which is why tourism destinations can be treated as products. There are, however, some differences between a place as a tourism destination and a marketable good or service purchased directly by customers of the tourism industry, such as the hire of hotel space or purchase of souvenirs. 3. 0History of International travel and tourism: From ancient festivals to outer space Many people wonder how travel and tourism has evolved so rapidly only in the last 50 years. There are many archaeological sites that reveal tourism destinations even from the 6th century A. D. in Babylon in what appeared to be the oldest history museum ever built which attracted people from all around the kingdom. Ancient Egypt also prided itself with its two majestic wonders: The Pyramids of Giza and The Lighthouse of Alexandria. The Nile River also represented an endless source of agricultural prosperity and boat festivals were organized as a sign of worship and gratitude for their wellbeing. A similar example was Ancient Greece with their many temple sites, venerating various gods. With the rise of the Roman Empire, tourism started to segment in different categories. Vacation tourism was practiced by the wealthier Romans who built residences outside the cities for seasonal use. Study tourism also became popular in the Upper Roman Class for children, but also parents who travelled to regions like Greece or Egypt to learn the local language and culture. You read "Tourism Destination Development: Homecoming Scotland" in category "Papers" It represents the beginning of what it is known today as â€Å"International tourism†. Romans also invented the first form of leisure tourism (balearic tourism) at different water spring sites all over the Empire. The travel phenomenon however was mostly related to expeditions, commerce, migration or military expeditions and it remained this way until the beginning of the 21st century. As technology grew and faster ways of transport became available, travel and tourism finally got closely connected. In England, Queen Elisabeth The 1st had promoted study tourism through which English diplomats were educated in Universities such as Cambridge and Oxford. At the time the idea of travelling for the sake of curiosity was very popular among the upper-class, thus the introduction of passports to keep evidence and secure the multinational travelling. The term Grand Tour was introduced by Richard Lassels in his 1670 book â€Å"Voyage to Italy†. Additional guidebooks, tour guides, and the tourist industry were developed and grew to meet the needs of the 20-something male and female travellers and their tutors across the European continent. The young tourists were wealthy and could afford the multiple years abroad. They carried letters of reference and introduction with them as they departed from southern England. The Grand Tourists were primarily interested in visiting those cities that were considered the major centres of culture at the time – Paris, Rome, and Venice were not to be missed. Florence and Naples were also popular destinations. The Grand Tourist would travel from city to city and usually spend weeks in smaller cities and up to several months in the three key cities. After the industrial revolution that brought important economic and social changes, the middle class population had significantly increased. At the end of the 19th century, middle class workers started to benefit of annual paid holidays. As the ways of transport became faster, reliable and also accessible, the demand for tourism resorts has exploded. As a result of the mass tourism phenomenon of the 1960s and post-World War flight technology and pilots, chartered seats on commercial airlines were introduced followed by long-haul packages that were very popular a decade later and encouraged international tourism also for the middle class. Today’s tourism is dominated by niches. The most popular segments are: religious tourism, photographic tourism, cultural and heritage tourism, tradition and culture-based tourism, adventure tourism, wildlife and special interest tourism. Space tourism represents the most recent niche and a number of companies have sprung up in recent years hoping to create a space tourism industry in near future. As an alternative to â€Å"tourism† some organisations use the term â€Å"personal spaceflight†. It has been practiced only by 7 people so far due to the high cost of such a trip (minimum 20 million dollars), but with today’s acceleration in technology growth, no one can predict what and to whom this niche has to offer in the future. 4. 0The Tourism area life cycle (TALC): Theory and application for Scotland . 1TALC models and the concept of Tourist Area Cycle Evolution: Their application to Scotland Tourist areas are dynamic; they evolve and change over time. The idea of a consistent process through which tourist areas evolve has been described by authors such as Christaller, Stansfield, Noronha and Cohen. Noronha suggests that tourism develops in three stages: discovery, local response and initiative, and institutionalised institutionalisation. Christaller also makes clear the fact that types of tourists change with the tourist areas. There is a lot of literature about characteristics of visitors, but the tourist’s motivations and desires have been ignored. Cohen, for example, characterises tourists as ‘institutionalised’ or ‘non-institutionalised or even ‘drifters, ‘explorers’, ‘individual mass tourists’ and ‘organised mass tourists’. Plog also said that â€Å"Destination areas carry with them the potential seeds of their own destruction, as they allow themselves to become more commercialised and lose their qualities which originally attracted tourists† (Cited in Butler 2006, p. ). But while writers such as Cohen have warned against the problems of unilinear models of social change, there is a lot of evidence that the general pattern of tourist area evolution is consistent. Butler’s Hypothetical Tourism Area Life Cycle Model is illustrated through a process of five stages: exploration, involvement, development, consolidation, sta gnation, and rejuvenation or decline. Because most studies in which the model has been applied for can be characterised as mature destinations, Butler’s model has attracted some criticism. In 2000 Butler revisited his model and highlighted aspects about it that could explain its continued relevance since 1980. He argued that because of a focus on detail in many studies some key aspects and the overall validity of the model had sometimes been overlooked. In order to explain the growth, change, limits and intervention in a tourism area, the model is based in eight elements: dynamism, process, capacity or limits to growth, triggers, management, long term view point, spatial components, and universal applicability. Prideaux however, notices that the life-cycle may be at ifferent stages for different markets, which is why he comes forward with a market perspective analysis. His model applies best for those destinations that have gradually developed from local to international markets, mainly applied for resorts. Scotland’s early stages however don’t seem to apply with the first two of Prideaux’s model (from local to regional tourism). As for Miossecâ₠¬â„¢s evolutionary cycle of destination development model, success from development starts even from stage one and at the latest stage he emphasises on the social-cultural impact for the region. The second stage represents a promotion through word-of-mouth which again didn’t apply to the first ‘courageous’ who visited Scotland and especially the Highlands and described it with horror. Weaver proposed a different but complementary model to the life cycle paradigm. It captures the need to regulate the use of tourism resources, especially the environment in order to adjust the flow of tourists. In situations where a high degree of regulation occurs, Weaver proposed that a destination could adopt ‘‘deliberate alternative tourism (DAT)’’, related to two forms of mass tourism, and to the sustainability of the destination. The first form he calls: unsustainable mass tourism (UMT) is the result of the continued development of the tourism that, in absence of restrictive regulation, exceeds the carrying capacity and the environmental and sociocultural limits of acceptable change in a destination; not Scotland’s case as here mass tourism is rare due to lack of land access to Europe and other continents and the mass tourism ‘trend’ is far behind. Traditionally, tourism sustainability is seen as a set of principles, political prescriptions and management methods that establish a path to develop tourism in conjunction with the protection of environmental, cultural and infrastructure resources of tourist destinations for the future (Lane, 1994). From this position, Hunter (1997) sees sustainable tourism as an adaptive paradigm depending on the circumstances of the environment in which it develops. He proposes four alternatives of sustainable development through: â€Å"tourism imperative†, â€Å"Product-Led tourism†, â€Å"Environment-Led tourism†, and â€Å"Neotenous tourism†. Of these four alternatives, ‘‘Sustainable development through Product-Led Tourism’’ is the focus here. In order to surmount the prescriptive limitations of the life cycle model when establishing the objective of sustainable development in island destinations, the teleological model proposed here can be used in a complementary manner. . 2Scotland’s unique early cycle stages *Fig. 1: Panoramic view of Culloden Viaduct *Fig. 1: Panoramic view of Culloden Viaduct The exploration stage represents the beginning of the cycle and it is assumed that there would be no specific facilities provided for visitors. Contacts between visitors and local residents is very often, which of course it might be beneficial if the locals are welcoming with strangers and also the visitors are keen to experience the local culture and traditions. Because this stage is mostly present nowadays in those unexplored or feared corners of the Earth, roughly called by many â€Å"Third World† countries, tourists take high risks when getting in contact with the residents as can never really anticipate the local’s behaviour and openness to tourists. Not all Scotland has lived this stage in the same time. The tourist industry of the north and west of Scotland, which is today a major economic and social force in the area, can be traced back more than 2 centuries to the intrepid travellers such as Penant (1772) and Johnson (1876). The economic base and infrastructure did not become established until approximately a century later. Youngson (cited in Butler 1973, p. 373) notes that â€Å"In the first half of the century [eighteenth] nobody visited the Highlands for pleasure or out of a sense of scientific curiosity† and visitors â€Å"tended to speak of the country almost with horror, as a black howling wilderness, full of bogs and boulders, mostly treeless, and nearly unfit for human habitation†. Unlike Southern or Eastern Scotland, wheeled vehicles were uncommon in the Highlands around 1750 due to poor, almost inexistent transport infrastructure. Another impediment to travellers at the time was the linguistic ‘stubbornness’ of Scottish people at the time to communicate in Gaelic, English still being considered only appropriate for the upper class. In 1812 the Duke of Gordon advertised shooting in â€Å"The Times† and rented Glenfeshie next to what it is known today as Glenmore Forest Park for ? 70. The popularity of the activity continued unabated and received powerful stimulation for various reasons. One was the great popularity of the artist Edwin Landseer, whose paintings of deer stalking were widely regarded, ncluding his best known work, â€Å"Monarch of the Glen,† originally commissioned for the Houses of Parliament. After Thomas Cook’s promotion of Southern Scotland in 1846 and construction of the Highland Main Line Railway in 1856, all Scottish regions were accessible by ground and the first tourist waves started to emerge. Another major influence was the enthusiastic support and part icipation by the Royal Family. Victoria and Albert first visited Scotland in 1842, and Albert participated in stalking at Drummond and in Glen Tilt. In 1848, they took a lease on Balmoral Castle, eventually purchasing it in 1852, and built a new residence which was completed in 1855. Their annual visits were a highlight of Victoria’s life. They cherished Scottish uniqueness. Butler states that If the first contact with visitors is peaceful and the local attractions present high potential interest for future tourists, the local residents can enter the involvement stage and begin to provide facilities primarily or even exclusively for visitors. The very purpose of a journey to Scotland was to find foreignness; it was the fact of Scottish distinctiveness which allowed the country to play its role as a counter to the modern world. The gesture gave social approval to the idea of a summer estate in the Highlands of Scotland, and the numbers of visitors increased steadily from that date, thus at the end of the nineteenth century there were approximately 170 inns and hotels in the area. In all, Scotland held out three categories of attractions to tourists: natural ones, such as an outdoor environment which enabled visitors to envision a world untouched by industrialisation; historic ones, which suggested that the past was uniquely accessible in Scotland; and human ones, particularly the men and women of the Highlands and Western Isles, who sightseers believed preserved an ancient way of life in a changing world. While the Highlands and Isles of Scotland were building land transit infrastructure connections to the Britannic Island, the population of Southern Scotland exploded, especially in the two major cities of Edinburgh (from 103,143 in 1811 to 269,407 in 1891) and Glasgow (from 202,426 in 1831 to 658,073 in 1891). After the appearance of automobiles, the famous A9 road was constructed, connecting Southern Scotland to Inverness and Wick using approximately the same route as the Highland Railway. It is still the longest road in Scotland (273) miles. Unfortunately, an equally gradual spread of visitors to all part of Scotland was delayed by restrictions imposed during the Second World War. While the Highlands and Isles of Scotland were building land transit infrastructure connections to the Britannic Island, the population of Southern Scotland exploded, especially in the two major cities of Edinburgh (from 103,143 in 1811 to 269,407 in 1891) and Glasgow (from 202,426 in 1831 to 658,073 in 1891). This demographic growth played a vital role in the following years in the increasing demand of labour for the service sectors after the war. 4. 3Scotland’s tourism development and consolidation â€Å"As the consolidation stage is entered the rate of increase in number of visitors will decline, although total number will still increase, and total visitor numbers exceed the number of permanent residents† (Butler 2006, p. 7). Scotland is not a low cost, rapidly growing emerging mass tourism destination. Exponential increase in visitor numbers and value has come to an end. Scotland is an attractive and popular destination which nevertheless is in the stagnation phase of the destination life cycle where tourism is a cash generator for the economy but growth is low and variable from year to year. It might even be on the cusp between stagnation and decline. â€Å"Surprise yourself† is the latest VisitScotland promotional campaign launched in March 2011 targeting the UK and Ireland market. With this campaign, VisitScotland tries to re-enforce its existing icons and people of Scotland. In fact, the main goal of â€Å"Surprise yourself† is to exit the post-stagnation stage in which it is as a domestic destination through the rejuvenating alternative illustrated in the following illustration model. *Fig. 2: Adapted from Butler’s TALC Vol. 1 *Fig. 2: Adapted from Butler’s TALC Vol. 1 There are a number of factors which are specific to the UK which are likely to impact negatively on visitor trends in Scotland over the next few years. These include: threat of a â€Å"double dip† recession, Government Spending Review in the UK and Scotland, proposed introduction of increased air passenger duty, VAT increase, increasing fuel prices, threat of terrorism perceived or real and currency fluctuation. Possible impacts of such changes might lead to: reduction in overseas visitor numbers; conversely, reduction in the propensity for UK residents to take holidays as costs increase and levels of disposable income reduce; a net overall reduction in visitor spend ;and negative impact on levels of investment in tourism in Scotland, as well as reducing VisitScotland and VisitBritain budgets. The industry in Scotland also recognises the following as threats: Global recession Cost increases Increased competition from UK and overseas; England is in a position of competitive strength for overseas markets given the overwhelming global profile of London and the reality that the major international gateways are located in south east England; decline in air and sea transport links to Scotland Increasing bureaucracy; public sector weaknesses – infrastructure, support and regulation; attitudes – people service, complacency, apathy. International events e. g. conflict or health scares could also reduce overseas visitor numbers. Scotland has a number of major opportunities to increase the value of tourism over the next few years. These include: A number of major international events including: Tall Ships Race 2011 (Greenock and Lerwick), The Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Game, Spin offs from the 2012 London Olympic Games, The Ryder Cup in 2014, Homecoming 2014, Rugby World Cup in 2015 (England and Wales); potential for growth in key sectors of the economy in which Scotland has â€Å"centre of excellence† credentials, such as renewable energy and biotechnology with consequent increases in business and conference tourism; potential for improved access to Scotland ; and development of major new infrastructure projects such as the national indoor arena, EICC extension, Trump development and the proposed V;A in Dundee. Scotland remains an attractive international destination within a number of well-developed and mature overseas markets. Mature markets probably offer limited scope for future growth in visitor numbers but they may be lucrative in value terms, especially based on areas such as golf, culture, and h eritage and business tourism. There is some growth potential in international markets: Following the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989, Eastern Europeans and Russians now travel regularly and many are high spending visitors with expectations of the highest standards and quality; emerging destinations are leading global growth resurgence (Brazil, Russia, China); Chinese citizens are increasingly wealthy and represent the world’s biggest future tourism market; and most importantly the number of US citizens with passports has doubled since 2003. 5. 0Homecoming Scotland: Attracting the American market 5. 1Scottish Ancestry in North America Scottish Americans (Ameireaganaich Albannach) or Scots Americans are citizens of the United States and Canada whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in Scotland. They are closely related to Scotch-Irish Americans, descendants of Ulster Scots, and communities emphasize and celebrate their common heritage. North America offered Scots the opportunity of farming their own land as well as employment possibilities in the cities. Some of the jobs on offer were those for which Scots already had experience, such as stonemasons and weavers. Once Scots from a particular area had made the move, their letters to back home encouraged others to join them. In recent studies, it is stated that there are about 30-40 million Americans who claim Scottish or Scotch-Irish heritage in the United States. But the region with most Scottish ancestry and also very much Scottish ancestry pride is Nova Scotia (New Scotland). New Scotland was founded by Sir William Alexander and King James of Scotland in the early 1600s. At that time, New Scotland consisted approximately of the Atlantic Provinces as they are known today, and the Gaspe Peninsula. Sir William Alexander with King James devised a settlement scheme of granting the title â€Å"Baronet of Nova Scotia† to any who would purchase large grants of land in New Scotland (Nova Scotia), secure and settle those lands. Following defeat at the Battle of Culloden, life and times became very difficult in the Highlands. The people were forbidden to speak their language (Gaelic), play the Bagpipes (considered instruments of war) or to wear their Highland dress. After the economy went from bad to worse, and the atrocities committed on the Highlanders by Butcher Cumberland and his followers the Highlanders, if they could, left. The first Highlanders to migrate to Nova Scotia arrived on the Ship Hector at Pictou in 1773. Through the years, up to and especially during the Highland Clearances, shipload after shipload of Highland emigrants crossed the difficult seas to Nova Scotia. The main ports of entry were Pictou, followed by Sydney, Halifax and others. Pictou became rightly known as the Birthplace of New Scotland. 5. 2Scotland’s markets in the changing US society *Fig. 3 International visitors in Scotland *Fig. 3 International visitors in Scotland Scottish Americans are, of course the target US market, but focusing only on this particular market would lead Homecoming Scotland to extinct. Even if they would have Scottish ancestry, they might not have any interest at all in Scotland. The stratification of the US market has to be demographic and social. The population of USA is approximately 298 million people, of which approximately 12 has Scottish Ancestry. They are widespread around the states, but unequally. Fortunately, for an expensive experience such as visiting Scotland from the US, high Scottish ancestry concentrations are in the wealthier corners of the United States like North-West, Central-North-West, North-East and Central-South-East. One of America’s weaknesses, it citizens average education is still to be desired and higher education is increasingly expensive. In order to have an awareness and interest in your possible Scottish ancestry, you need to have quite a decent education. So therefore, education directly influences American’s level of interest in places like Scotland. *Fig. 4 Adapted from clanstirling. org *Fig. 4 Adapted from clanstirling. org As of the American generations, Scottish tourism is open to almost all of them expect for the pre-depression generation who are predisposed to physical accidents, thus travelling over such long distances would be an impediment for them (not for their UK homologues though). The depression generation is known as very keen to activity and adventure tourism. Scotland’s advanced adventure and activity tourism developed in Western Scotland, such as Forth William and plentiful of sport events might be an important advantage. But the most suitable American generation to visit Scotland are the â€Å"Baby Boomers†. Boomers are higher income, higher education and are a strong market for anti-aging products, travel and financial services. They are desperate to evade from routine and relax in a wonder untouched corner of the Earth, but also are aware of their ancestry, thus open to visit their homeland. Reaching the Xers however, is a tougher challenge because they have matured in a busy, overcrowded learning and working environment, so reaching them requires special attention to the media. This is in fact where VisitScotland comes at hand the most. 5. 3Homecoming Scotland 2009 and 2014: Stagnating nationally, developing internationally The campaign represents a stubbornness to return to the Butler’s development phase of the cycle: a reflection of a well-defined tourist market area, shaped by heavy advertising in tourist-generating areas. One of the most likely tourist-generating areas for Scotland is without any doubt, North America, due to its powerful Scottish ancestry. 2009 was the first year of the campaign and it is seen as an economic success for Scotland. Homecoming Scotland 2009 was a Scottish Government initiative, delivered in partnership between EventScotland, the national events agency, and VisitScotland, the national tourism organisation. Homecoming was allocated a core budget of ? 5. 5 million from the Scottish Government. Research by EKOS, an economic and social development consultancy reveals some very impressive achievements of Homecoming Scotland 2009: generated ? 53. 7 million in additional tourism revenue for Scotland, exceeding the ? 44 million target by 22 percent; attracted 95,000 additional visitors to Scotland; and generated ? 154 million of positive global media coverage. Homecoming has established an important database of Scots interest groups around the world. Only VisitScotland. com has received 344,207 additional newsletter subscribers. The year launched over the Robert Burns’ 250th anniversary, Scotland’s national bard and cultural icon. Also in 2009, because of Homecoming’s heritage promotion, the country’s biggest ever co-ordinated St Andrew’s Day was held. In order to have at least a similar success, Homecoming Scotland 2014 has to be predeceased by 3 ‘preliminary years’, each focused on a particular theme: 2010 for Food and Drink, 2011 for an Active Scotland, 2012 for a Creative Scotland, and finally 2013 Natural Scotland. Homecoming 2014 will take place in the year that Scotland hosts the Commonwealth Games, the 2014 Ryder Cup and marks the 700th anniversary of the Battle of Bannockburn. Conclusion Scotland, like any other destination is travelling its destination life cycle. This post-stagnation phase however, represents the most vital one, and it is here where tourism destination development is mostly put into practice. The uniqueness in which it travels makes Scotland one of the most challenging, yet exciting destinations to promote nationally, and especially internationally. References Ashworth G. and Goodall B. , 1990. Marketing Tourist Places. New York: Routledge; Brewer, T. , 1994. The Marketing of Tradition: Perspectives on Folklore, Tourism and the Heritage Industry. Enfield Lock : Hisarlik; Butler, R. W. , 2006. The Tourism Area Life Cycle, Vol. 1: Applications and Modifications. Clevedon: Channel View Publications; Butler, R. W. , 2006. The Tourism Area Life Cycle, Vol. 1: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues. Clevedon: Channel View Publications; Butler, R. W. , Hall, C. M. , Jenkins J. , 1998. Tourism and Recreation in Rural Areas. Chichester: John Wiley ; Sons Ltd. ; Cooper, C. et al. , 1993. Tourism Principles and Practice, 3rd Ed.. Essex: Pearson; Crouch D. , Jackson R. , and Felix T. , 2005. The Media ; The Tourist Imagination. New York: Routledge; Durie, A. J. , 2003. Scotland For The Holidays: Tourism in Scotland c1780-1939. East Linton: Tuckwell Press Ltd. ; Grenier, K. H. , 2005. Tourism and Identity in Scotland, 1770-1914: Creating Caledonia. Burlington: Ashgate; Heath, E. and Wall, G. , 1992. Marketing Tourism Destinations: A Strategic Planning Approach; Kolb, B. M. , 2006. Tourism marketing for cities and towns. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; Swarbrooke, J. , 1995. The Development ; Management of Visitor Attractions. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; BBC NEWS, 2010. Travel industry faces difficult voyage. [online]. London: BBC News. Available from: http://www. bbc. co. uk/news/business-11362694. Accessed 13 December 2011; BUTLER, R. W. , 1973. The Tourist Industry in the Highlands and Islands: Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis. Annals of Tourism Research. Vol. 12, pp. 371-391. HOMECOMING SCOTLAND 2009, 2010. Report for Homecoming Scotland. [online]. Available from http://www. homecomingscotland2009. com/what-was-homecoming-scotland/ancestry/default. html. Accessed 13 December 2011; RODRIGUEZ, J. R. O, PARRA-LOPEZ, E. nd YANES-ESTEVES, V. , 2008. The sustainability of island destinations: Tourism area life cycle and teleological perspectives. Tourism Management. Vol. 29, pp. 53-65. THE SCOTTISH GOVERNMENT, 2010. Second Homecoming in 2014. [online]. Available from http://www. scotland. gov. uk/News/Releases/2010/05/25113855. Accessed 13 December 2011; TOURI SM MATTERS, 2011. Maximise VisitScotland’s â€Å"Surprise Yourself† Campaign. [online]. Available from: http://www. tourismmatters. co. uk/2011/03/maximise-visitscotlands-surprise. html. Accessed 12 December 2011; VISITSCOTLAND, 2011. Visit Scotland: Surprise Yourself. [online]. Available from http://surprise. isitscotland. com/? gclid=CLKB_6C-5aoCFQEf4Qod3Ckq6g. Accessed 11 December 2011; Bibliography Ashworth G. and Goodall B. , 1990. Marketing Tourist Places. New York: Routledge; Brewer, T. , 1994. The Marketing of Tradition: Perspectives on Folklore, Tourism and the Heritage Industry. Enfield Lock : Hisarlik; Butler, R. W. , 2006. The Tourism Area Life Cycle, Vol. 1: Applications and Modifications. Clevedon: Channel View Publications; Butler, R. W. , 2006. The Tourism Area Life Cycle, Vol. 1: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues. Clevedon: Channel View Publications; Butler, R. W. , Hall, C. M. , Jenkins J. , 1998. Tourism and Recreation in Rural Areas. Chichester: John Wiley ; Sons Ltd. ; Cooper, C. et al. , 1993. Tourism Principles and Practice, 3rd Ed.. Essex: Pearson; Crouch D. , Jackson R. , and Felix T. , 2005. The Media ; The Tourist Imagination. New York: Routledge; Durie, A. J. , 2003. Scotland For The Holidays: Tourism in Scotland c1780-1939. East Linton: Tuckwell Press Ltd. ; Grenier, K. H. , 2005. Tourism and Identity in Scotland, 1770-1914: Creating Caledonia. Burlington: Ashgate; Heath, E. and Wall, G. , 1992. Marketing Tourism Destinations: A Strategic Planning Approach; Kolb, B. M. , 2006. Tourism marketing for cities and towns. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; Swarbrooke, J. , 1995. The Development ; Management of Visitor Attractions. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; BBC NEWS, 2010. Travel industry faces difficult voyage. [online]. London: BBC News. Available from: http://www. bbc. co. uk/news/business-11362694. Accessed 13 December 2011; BUTLER, R. W. , 1973. The Tourist Industry in the Highlands and Islands: Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis. Annals of Tourism Research. Vol. 12, pp. 371-391. HOMECOMING SCOTLAND 2009, 2010. Report for Homecoming Scotland. [online]. Available from http://www. homecomingscotland2009. com/what-was-homecoming-scotland/ancestry/default. html. Accessed 13 December 2011; RODRIGUEZ, J. R. O, PARRA-LOPEZ, E. and YANES-ESTEVES, V. , 2008. The sustainability of island destinations: Tourism area life cycle and teleological perspectives. Tourism Management. Vol. 29, pp. 53-65. THE SCOTTISH GOVERNMENT, 2010. Second Homecoming in 2014. [online]. Available from http://www. scotland. gov. uk/News/Releases/2010/05/25113855. Accessed 13 December 2011; TOURISM MATTERS, 2011. Maximise VisitScotland’s â€Å"Surprise Yourself† Campaign. [online]. Available from: http://www. tourismmatters. co. uk/2011/03/maximise-visitscotlands-surprise. html. Accessed 12 December 2011; VISITSCOTLAND, 2011. Visit Scotland: Surprise Yourself. [online]. Available from http://surprise. visitscotland. com/? gclid=CLKB_6C-5aoCFQEf4Qod3Ckq6g. Accessed 11 December 2011; How to cite Tourism Destination Development: Homecoming Scotland, Papers

Politeness Strategies Between Native and Non

Introduction This essay focuses on Brown and Levinson’s theory of politeness. Brown and Levinson developed this theory in 1987.The theory focuses on politeness strategies between native and non-native speakers in the context of Brown and Levinson politeness theory. In this essay, I will apply this framework to one data one part of the dataset collected.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Politeness Strategies Between Native and Non-native Speakers inthe Context of Brown Levinson Politeness Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The data is from two interviews, one with a native speaker and one with a non native speaker. I have chosen this sort of data because it fits within the parameters of my framework and it has not been the subject of extensive research. Literature Review Politeness Concepts There are universal principles that govern human interaction and this awakening makes the politeness phenomenon t o be considered in this universality. The aspects of politeness are thus reflected in language. It has been found that however societies may be isolated from each other; they have an array of politeness elements governed by certain principles. But one should take care to imagine that what is considered polite runs through societies. However, what is considered polite differs from one society to the other. What is universal is the fact that is the fact that nearly all societies exhibit their elements of politeness in their language(brown Levinson 1987).Thus, although there have been notable confluences between politeness and the field of sociology, there have also been great strides made in the other fields of linguistics such as pragmatics, sociolinguistics etc. Roberts (1992) conceptualizes politeness from the notion of face saving. He notes that when people put the feelings of other people into consideration, the do it in such a way that they speak or put things across in a manner likely to greatly reduce the potential of threat in the interaction (Roberts 1992). On the other hand, Nordquist (2012) perceives politeness as exhibiting itself through deviation from that communication which is maximally efficient. In this context, Nordquist (1992) notes that â€Å"†¦to perform an act other than in the most clear and efficient manner possible is to implicate some degree of politeness on the part of the speaker† (p.1). Watts as cited by Abbas (n.d) argue that politeness as one that one that displays the natural attributes of a good character or rather the that capacity to please others through one’s external actions, thereby producing a kind of union between those characters and the individual, giving a more precise definition of politeness. Anglesa (n.d) states that politeness as a way through which languages express the social distance between speakers and their different role relationships, how face-work, that is, the attempt to establish, ma intain and save face during conversation is carried out in a speech community.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Several scholars such as Hickley (1991) and Brown Levinson (1987) have gone to great lengths to differentiate politeness orientations within the context of different cultures (Anglesa n.d, p.1). In this context, several notions of politeness have emerged that is positive and negative politeness. According to Abbas (n.d), a positive politeness strategy is one that is directed to the addressee’s positive face, their perennial desire that their â€Å"wants-or the actions, acquisitions, values resulting from them-should be thought of as desirable† (p.15). Anglesa (n.d) concurs with Abbas by noting that positive politeness strategies always strive to show intimacy that occurs or arises between the speaker and the hearer. Kitamura (2000), notes that positive po liteness is usually expressed by satisfying positive face. This is done through indicating the similarities among interactants, and by expressing an appreciation of the self image of the interlocutor. On the other hand, negative politeness strategies constitute those strategies which stress on non-imposition upon the hearer and also express deference (Anglesa n.d). In this context, Abbas (n.d) notes that negative politeness attends to a person’s negative face needs and includes indirectness and apologies (p.17). Kitamura (2000) summarizes the concepts of negative politeness strategies by noting that how negative politeness can be expressed in two ways: 1) by saving the interlocutor’s face (either negative or positive face) by mitigating face threatening acts, such as advice-giving and disapproval; or 2) by satisfying negative face by indicating respect for addressee’s right not to be imposed on. Overview of the politeness theories and principles Before discussin g the Brown Levinson politeness theories, it is critical to discuss several approaches to politeness. These approaches either compete or offer building blocks to the Brown Levinson politeness theory. Such approaches include â€Å"†¦the theory of politeness principle, Grice’s cooperative principle, Leech’s maxims of politeness, and Sperber Wilson’s relevance theory† (Abbas n.d, p.5). Davies (2000) views Grice’s cooperative principle is an assumed basic concept in pragmatics. Hughes (n.d) defines Grice’s cooperative principle as the assumption that we make when speaking to one another is that we are trying to cooperate with one another in order to construct worthy and meaningful conversations. Grice as cited by Davies (2000) formally states the cooperative principle in the following way. â€Å"Make your contribution such as required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which yo u are engaged† (Davies 2000, p.2). Cooperation in the context of Grice’s cooperative principle â€Å"†¦is a term used in linguistic literature to characterise human behaviour in a conversation† (Davies 2000, p.1)Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Politeness Strategies Between Native and Non-native Speakers inthe Context of Brown Levinson Politeness Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There are four maxims that are postulated by the Grice’s cooperative principles including quantity, quality, relation, and manner maxims. The quantity maxim requires one to be truthful by not uttering what lacks required evidence and whatever that is false (Heron 2010, p.2). The relation maxim is concerned about the relevance of the content. The quantity maxim requires one not to say more or less than what is necessary (Heron 2010, p.2). The manner maxims require one to avoid obscurity and ambiguit y (Heron 2010, p.2). According to the University of Rome (UoR) (2012), Leech â€Å"†¦defines politeness as a type of behaviours that allows the participants to engage in social interaction in an atmosphere of relative harmony† (p.2). Leech proposed several politeness maxims which have varying degrees of importance. According to UoR (2012), the Leech’s maxims include tact maxim, generosity maxim, approbation maxim, modesty maxim, agreement maxim, and sympathy maxim. Universidad de Zaragoza (n.d) summarized Leech’s maxims in the following ways Tact maxim: minimise cost to other; (maximise benefit to other) Generosity maxim: minimise benefit to self; (maximise cost to self) Approbation maxim: minimise dispraise of other Agreement maxim: minimise disagreement between self and other Sympathy maxim: minimise antipathy between self and other (Zaragoza n.d, p.1)Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Sperber Wilson’s relevance theory is based on a definition of relevance and two principles of relevance. These include a cognitive principle (that human cognition is geared to the maximisation of relevance), and a communicative principle that utterances create expectations of optimal relevance (Wilson Sperber, 2002). Brown Levinson politeness theory In order to understand the theory of politeness and face, it is mandatory to understand the vocabularies associated with the theory. In this context, the introductory part of this essay will concentrate on the definitions of basic terminologies associated with the theory of politeness and face. Some of the terminologies that will be discussed include face, positive face, negative face, politeness, face threatening acts and model persons, among others. One of the major underlying assumptions of the Brown Levinson politeness theory is the existence of the model person taking part in a conversation. Brown Levinson as cited b y Kwon Ha (2009) defined â€Å"†¦Model Persons as agents fulfilling the linguistic politeness† (p.3). Pikor-Niedzialek (2005) perceives a model person as â€Å"†¦a wilful and fluent speaker of a natural language, endowed with two special properties-rationality and face† (p.108). In this context, the model person is assumed to be inherited with two specific features that include Rationality and Face† (Kwon Ha, 2009). The model person can be seen as the embodiment of universally valid human social characteristics and principles of social reasoning. These principles behind social reasoning can be perceived as rational. More specifically, Kwon Ha (2009) define rationality in the context of model person as the â€Å"†¦ability to choose appropriate means to meet their (social) goals† (p.3). In this sense, model person will always act in a rational way and make appropriate (linguistic) choices when s/he wants to achieve particular goals (Kwon H a 2009, p.3). When individuals try to create certain impressions to their hearers (create face), there are certain acts that impede on the achievement of such impressions. Such acts are generally referred to as Face Threatening Acts (FTAs). Brown Levinson as cited by Nall (n.d) defined FTAs as acts and strategies which could harm or threaten the positive or negative face of one’s interlocutors (p.1).According to Wagner (2002), Brown Levinson utilized FTAs using â€Å"†¦two basic parameters:(1) whose face is being threatened (the speaker’s or the addressee’s), and (2) Which type of face is being threatened (positive- or negative –face).† (p.22). Wagner (2002) gives several FTAs threatening a positive or negative face. In this context, Wagner (2002) argue that acts that threaten an addressee’s positive face include those acts in which a speaker demonstrates that he/she does not approve or support the addressee’s positive face or self image (p.22). According to Brown Levinson as cited by Fukada Asato (2003), there are five strategies of alleviating FTAs. These strategies include â€Å"†¦ (1) Without redressive action (2) by positive politeness (3) by negative politeness (4) by going off record; and (5) by not doing the FTA† (Fukada Asato 2003, p.2). In the context of FTA alleviation strategies, Longscope (n.d) groups such strategies under positive or negative politeness as part of alleviation of FTAs with redressive action. In order to enhance the knowledge on FTAs alleviation, Longscope (n.d) defines the concepts of â€Å"on record† and â€Å"off record† in the context of FTAs. Longscope (n.d) opines that â€Å"†¦the term on record is used when an expression has one unambiguously attributable intention in which witnesses would concur† (p.71). There are three factors used in the determination of the seriousness of the FTAs that is â€Å"(1) the social distance (D) of the speaker (S) and hearer (H); (2) the relative power (P) of (S) and (H); and (3) the absolute ranking (R) of the imposition in the particular culture† (Wagner 2002, p.2). According to Brown Levinson as cited by Fukada Asato (2003), there is a formula for evaluating the serious of a Face Threatening Act (x) based on the three factors. The following formula was proposed by Brown Levinson for use in the evaluation of the seriousness of FTAs. â€Å"Seriousness X= Distance (S, H) + Power (H, S) + Rank of imposition (x)† (Wagner 2002, p.2). Power (P) is a factor that Brown Levinson have greatly used. This means that power differentials play a great role in politeness. That is, individuals with lower relative power are usually predetermined to use larger politeness elements in discourse. There is a great correlation between the superiors and subordinates employ elements of politeness in speech acts. So subordinates may use far more laborious constructions while addressin g their superiors as in the sentence: Excuse me, I was wondering if you could grant me an opportunity for an interview? From the sentence one can see that power as a function of politeness does vary greatly. The same applies to the social distance (D).Negative tactics that do play a greater role in establishing this distance between both the hearer and the speaker. Brown Levinson do feel that humans use speech acts do play an important role in politeness strategies. There are on-record speech acts and off-record speech acts as the one in the sentence: Have you got money? One can see that here the speech acts refer to what the action they want performed in a peculiar way. Requests on the other hand clearly serve as good examples of face threatening acts since they show the speaker’s expectation for an action to be performed. This means that whatever is requested is to be on the speaker’s behalf. Thus, speech acts do constitute several parts such as locutionary act which is a communicative act; illocutionary act, which reflects speaker’s intention and perlocutionary act which shows the effect a speech act has on the world of the participant’s context. Ranking of imposition equally plays a crucial role in politeness. It can be seen that some impositions have been found to be greater than others. This is why requests have been considered to be of high imposition threats. Since they demand more redress to lower their threat level. Central to the Brown Levinson politeness theory are the actions of the Model Person (MP). In this context, the actions of MP are summarized as as threefold: (1) as a reference model for the description of culture –specific styles of verbal interaction; as a means of characterizing, (2) the ‘ethos’ of a culture and subculture, and (3) the affective quality of social relationships (p.109).Brown Levinson politeness theory is derived from various arguments that Brown Levinson made in their va rious works. In this context, Fukada Asato (2003) notes that â€Å"†¦Brown Levinson argue that every member of the society has a face, which is defined as one’s public self-image, and when the speaker decides to commit an act which potentially causes the hearer (or the speaker) to lose face, the speaker will tend to use a politeness strategy in order to minimize risk† (p.1). Pikor-Niedziakel (2005) summarizes the key Brown Levinson universal politeness theory concepts in the following way. (1) All MPs have positive face and negative face, and all MPs are rational  agents – i.e. choose means that will satisfy their ends. (2) Given that face consists in sets of wants satisfable (sic) only by the actions of others, it will in general be to the mutual interest of two MP’s not to threaten each other’s face. (3) Some acts intrinsically threaten face; these ‘face-threatening acts’ are referred to as FTA’ s. (4) S (speaker) wi ll want to minimize the face threat of the FTA. (5) The greater the risk of an FTA, the more S will want to choose a higher numbered strategy (from the set of strategies at his disposal to minimize face risk) (Pikor-Niedziakel 2005, p.109). There are several ways of demonstrating either positive or negative politeness strategies. Brown Levinson as cited by Pikor-Niedziakel (2005) identified â€Å"†¦15 sub strategies of positive politeness and 10 of negative politeness† (p.109). These 15 subcategories of politeness include: 1. Notice, attended to (H) (his interests, wants, needs, goods), 2. Exaggerate (interest, approval, sympathy with H), 3. Intensify interest to (H), 4.distinction of identity, 5.Arrive at consensus, 6. Be a team player, 7.Presuppose, raise, and assert common ground, 8. Joke, 9. Assert, presuppose S’s knowledge of, and concern for H’s wants, 10. Offer, promise, 11. Be optimistic, 12. Include both (S) and (H) in the activity, 13. Give (or a sk for) reasons, 14.Assume or assert reciprocity, 15. Give gifts to H (goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation). The sub strategies of negative politeness Brown and Levinson (1987:131) include the following: 1. Be conventionally indirect, 2. Question, hedge, 3. Be pessimistic, 4. Minimize the imposition FTA, 5. Give deference, 6. Apologize, 7.avoid personalization of (S) and (H), 8. Generalize FTA, 9. Nominalize, 10. Accept liability (Pikor-Niedziakel 2005, p.110). There are several assumptions made in the context of Brown Levinson politeness theory. Pikor-Niedziakel (2005) enumerates basic assumptions that support the Brown Levinson universal politeness theory in the following way. (i)’face’, consists of (a) negative face: free from inhibition (b) positive face: the positive, consistent self-image or ‘personality’ (Crucially including the desire for this self – to be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants. (ii) Certain rational capacities, in particular consistent modes of reasoning from ends to the means that will achieve those ends.(Pikor-Niedziakel 2005, p.109). Criticism of the theory Several scholars have over the years criticized Brown Levinson theory. Some of these scholars include Liao, Watts et al., and Kasper amongst others (Pikor-Niedziakel 2005). These criticisms have been summarized by Escandell-Vidal and Meier amongst others (Pikor-Niedziakel, 2005). According to Pikor-Niedziakel (2005), criticism to Brown Levinson theory are conceptualized along the universality of the politeness principles and the distinction between positive and negative politeness. On the other hand, Hickey Orta (n.d) perceive the criticisms of the Brown Levinson politeness theory from four dimensions. Both situational and and cultural contexts miss in Brown Levinson theory. There is also the problem emanating from the rigidity of the politeness scale as placed in relation to the various sociological variables. One c an see that Brown and Levinson’s list of strategies of politeness only cover simple goal oriented interactions. These include interactions such as asking to borrow something from the next person. This theory seems to ignore that in real discourse such single utterances only form part of larger exchanges between two or even more interractants. Issues such as back channelling are totally given a wide berth by the theory. Further, Brown and Levinson seem to ignore the fact that some conversations are usually casual and do not necessarily involve a predetermined goal. One of the scholars who questioned the universality of the Brown Levinson politeness theory is Blum-Kulka (Hickey Orta n.d, p.272).Blum-Kulka based her criticism of the Brown Levinson theory on her study of the Hebrew language. In contrast to the Brown Levinson politeness provisions, Blum-Kulka notes that â€Å"†¦for Israelis a certain adherence to the pragmatic clarity of the message is an essential part of politeness† (Hickey Orta n.d, p.272). In this context, the lengthening of the inferential path beyond reasonable limits increases the degree of the imposition and hence decreases the level of politeness (Hickey Orta n.d, p.272). Blum-Kulka observations contradict Brown Levinson politeness theory in a fundamental way. Brown Levinson politeness theory provides that in order to demonstrate linguistic politeness or save face, it might be necessary to length one’s conversational sentences beyond what is necessary to convey the message. However, Blum-Kulka notes that this lengthening of the sentence or use of FTA alleviating strategy in the context of Hebrew language may actually be considered as impolite. She notes that the language encourages clarity, brevity and a certain straight forwardness that may not be permissible in the English language in order to demonstrate linguistic politeness. This directly contradicts the Brown Levinson politeness theory. Brown Levin son has addressed Blum-Kulka’s observations in one major way. They note that some societies place a higher value on a superior’s time than others. In this context, they note Blum-Kulka’s efficiency factor which only works in societies that place a high value on a superior’s time (Hickey Orta n.d, p.272). Such efficiency factor is absent in communities that don’t place a premium value on the superiors’ time such as the Arabs. Both Hickey Orta (n.d) and Pikor-Niedziakel (2005), note there is a deficiency in the formulation of the positive and negative politeness strategies. In this context, Pikor-Niedziakel (2005) argues that Brown Levinson categorized many FTA’s as threatening both negative and positive face. In the same light, Pikor-Niedziakel (2005) suggests that positive politeness is relevant to all aspects of a person’s positive face, whereas negative politeness is FTA-specific. Thus, negative politeness serves to redres s the threat of a particular FTA; positive politeness has a more general redressive function (p.273). In this context,Pikor-Niedzialek (2005) note that Brown Levinson politeness theory is a robust way of looking at linguistic politeness. All in all I find the politeness theory as being as presenting a proper background to insights into politeness strategies across many languages of the world. Method The type of data I am analysing is my interviews. This method has got several advantages since through them it is easy for one to gain in-depth insights and context into the topic. Further, since the interviews do target certain specific areas of interest to the study, the respondents therefore only describe what is important to them. Also the interviews are crucial since the data collected involves quotes that directly contain what the discourse markers that the research is greatly interested in. Though the interviews are used, they have some disadvantages since they are time consuming and expensive compared to other data collection methods. Also to an extent, the interviews do seem intrusive to the respondents, thereby causing some ethical concerns The data that I have collected is quite useful in the research as it contains the elements that can be handled appropriately by the theoretical framework postulated. For instance the data contains discourse markers for example the uses of â€Å"yeah†. These tends to occur at the very beginning of an utterance and they serve two roles which include signalling a transition as the conversation evolves, while at the same time the discourse markers do reflect an interactive relationship between the speaker and also the person to whom the message is addressed. The data contains the use of sounds which are clearly shown indicated. All these elements could be analysed against the politeness theory as postulated by Brown and Levinson. Since data collected involves human respondents, ethics is an issue that is crucial to the respondents. Since the respondents will probably be expressing their issues freely, there is need to protect their identity. This research will do so by referring to the respondents as either native speaker (NS) or non-native speaker (NNS). Their real names will not be used in the collected data. Further they will be informed beforehand that they are being interviewed for purposes of research only. This means that their anonymity will be preserved and also their names and addresses and other information about them that could be used to identify them shall be confidential. But there are cases where the native countries of the respondents may be revealed. In these cases, the results of the research will have limited access. Minors and members of the vulnerable groups will not be used as their participation may cause grave ethical issues. All in all the participants will not be coerced. The respondents will voluntarily participate and be told of their freedom to withdraw at any ti me they may deem necessary. This means that a respondent information sheet will be provided to all the respondents, providing them with clear information concerning the research and the need for their consent to be given. Research objective/question This essay seeks to evaluate the ways in which S influences H’s behaviour in the context of interviewing native and non native speakers. Research methodology The research methodology will be the examination of the two interviews between the native speakers and non native speakers in order to determine the honorifics used in those interviews. Findings The notion of politeness can be observed in the way the two answer questions set to them. Interview with non native speaker Do you like shopping? Yah: I like it a lot. Interview with native speaker First, I would like to ask you what food you like Ok (.) I like sea food :: AAAAA I like BBQ AAAA there is not really a lot of food I do not like AAAA in terms of style of cooking (.)AA Amm I guess if I try something I don’t like it yap CAPS The native speaker uses face saving aspects by elaborating on the type of food he likes in the contrast to the non native speaker who is more direct. This can be partially attributed to the challenges in the language. Interview with non native speaker A- Do you prefer big or small centres? Why? B- AAAA probably big centers (.) they have more options, more stores It can be seen from this excerpt that the non native speaker here hesitates in responding to A by using AAAA. Interview with native speaker (A) So, this means you like buying and trying new foods rather than preparing them yourself. (B)Oh no , I prefer to make it CAPS but because Imm I need to organize everything by myself I thought it is much easier when I was living with people because you could share? you know things or do it together with people you make sure there is time to organize you know grocery shopping which makes things hard to cook. From this inter view the respondent appears more at ease and even hesitates a bit by using Imm before proceeding with speech. Further, the respondent says: You know things†¦. Discussion From the data there are sure elements of politeness. The non native speaker tends to be direct as opposed to the native speaker. Though the non native speaker at times hesitates, this is not for face saving but the hesitation shows that he/she is not sure on what to answer. The native speaker employs avoidance of imposition on the hearer for example he/she starts the sentence with, â€Å"You know†¦.† This strategy assumes that the hearer is imposed on. Here the negative face leads to the desire to keep distance. Conclusion The non native speaker is more direct in their speech in comparison to the native speaker. It is critical to not that at all times the non native uses little linguistic politeness in contrast to the native users. References Abbas, A. (n.d).The Concept of Pragmatic Politeness with Reference to Standard English and Standard Kurdish. Retrieved from http://www.univsul.org/Dosekan_Mamostakan_U/2%20Seminar.abbas%20Ph.D%20Politeness.bedu%20.pdf Anglesa, F. (n.d).How to approach the teaching of communicative competence in a second language.Retrieved from http://www.uji.es/bin/publ/edicions/jfi2/politen.pdf Davies, B. (2000). Grice’s cooperative principle:getting the meaning across. Retrieved from http://www.leeds.ac.uk/linguistics/WPL/WP2000/Davies.pdf Fukada, A Asato, N. (2003).Universal politeness theory: application to the use of Japanese honorifics. Retrieved from http://www.geocities.ws/davius_sanctex/honorifics.pdf Hayashi, T. (n.d).Reconstructing a universal theory of politeness: face, politeness, and model of realization. Retrieved from http://www.nord.helsinki.fi/clpg/CLPG/Takuo%20Hayashi.pdf Heron, S. (2010). Conversational Implicature. Retrieved from http://www.words-in world.de/mediapool/36/361457/data/Pragmatics_SS_2010_/Presentation_session_3.p df Hickey, L Orta, V. (n.d). Politeness as deference a pragmatic view. Retrieved from http://rodin.uca.es:8081/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10498/8733/18228392.pdf?sequence=1 Hughes, L. (n.d). Grice’s cooperative Principle, Maxims of Conversation Conversational Implicature. Retrieved from http://www.laurahughes.com/art/grice.pdf Kitamura, N. (2000). Adapting Brown and Levinson’s ‘Politeness’ Theory. Retrieved from http://www.als.asn.au/proceedings/als2000/kitamura.pdf Kwon, S Ha, S. (2009). On Politeness: Cross-cultural differences. Retrieved from http://www.linguistics.fi/julkaisut/SKY2006_1/1.4.7.%20VILKKI.pdf Longscope, P. (n.d). The universality of face in Brown and Levinson’s politeness theory: A Japanese perspective. Retrieved from http://www.justinecassell.com/discourse09/readings/longscope.pdf Morand, D Ocker, R. (2003).Politeness Theory and Computer-Mediated Communication: A Sociolinguistic Approach to Analyzing Relational Messages. Retrieved from http://www.hicss.hawaii.edu/HICSS36/HICSSpapers/CLDGS02.pdf Nall, S. (n.d). An Analysis of the Face Threatening Act Strategies Used in International Trade Email Correspondence. Retrieved from http://dept.hku.edu.tw/eng/downloads/Symposium/7.pdf n.d Nordquist, R. (2012). Politeness Strategies. Retrieved from http://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/Politeness-Strategies.htm. Pikor-Niedzialel, M. (2005). A critical overview of politeness theories in discourse analysis. Retrieved from http://www.univ.rzeszow.pl/wfil/ifa/usar3/sar_v3_09.pdf Roberts, J. (1992). Face threatening acts and politeness theory: contrasting speeches from supervisory conferences. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/jcs/jcs_1992spring_roberts.pdf. Universidad de Zaragoza. (n.d).Sources of the Communicative Approach. Retrieved from http://www.unizar.es/elafuen/files_metodologia/tema_2/the_communic_aproach.pdf University of Rome. (2012). The politeness principle. Retrieved from www.uniroma2.it/didatt ica/ling_ing1_linfo/†¦/POLITENESS.doc Wagner, L. (2002). Positive- and Negative-Politeness Strategies: Apologizing in the Speech Community of Cuernavaca, Mexico. Retrieved from http://www.uri.edu/iaics/content/2004v13n1/02%20Lisa%20C.%20Wagner.pdf Wilson Sperber,D. (2002). Relevance Theory. Retrieved from http://people.bu.edu/bfraser/Relevance%20Theory%20Oriented/Sperber%20%20Wilson%20-%20RT%20Revisited.pdf This essay on Politeness Strategies Between Native and Non-native Speakers inthe Context of Brown Levinson Politeness Theory was written and submitted by user Cardiac to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act in South Africa

The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act in South Africa The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (no. 55 of 1949) was one of the first pieces of apartheid legislation enacted after the National Party came to power in South Africa in 1948. The Act banned marriages between â€Å"Europeans and non-Europeans,† which, in the language of the time, meant that white people could not marry people of other races. It also made it a criminal offense for a marriage officer to perform an interracial marriage ceremony. Justification and Aims of the Laws The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act did not, however, prevent other so-called mixed marriages between non-white people. Unlike some other key pieces of apartheid legislation, this act was designed to protect the â€Å"purity† of the white race rather than the separation of all races. Mixed marriages were rare in South Africa before 1949, averaging fewer than 100 per year between 1943 and 1946, but the National Party explicitly legislated to keep non-whites from infiltrating the dominant white group by intermarriage. Both the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act and the Immorality Act of 1957 were based on then-active United States segregation laws. It was not until 1967 that the first U.S. Supreme Court case rejecting miscegenation laws (Loving v. Virginia) was decided. Apartheid Marriage Law Opposition While most white South Africans agreed that mixed marriages were undesirable during apartheid, there was opposition to making such marriages illegal. In fact, a similar act had been defeated in the 1930s when the United Party was in power. It was not that the United Party  supported interracial marriages. Most were vehemently opposed to any interracial relations. Led by Prime Minister Jan Christiaan Smuts (1919–1924 and 1939–1948), the United Party thought that the strength of public opinion against such marriages was sufficient for preventing them. They also said there was no need to legislate interracial marriages since so few happened anyway, and as South African sociologist and historian Johnathan Hyslop has reported, some even stated that making such a law insulted white women by suggesting they would marry black men. Religious Opposition to the Act The strongest opposition to the act, however, came from the churches. Marriage, many clerics argued, was a matter for God and churches, not the state. One of the key concerns was that the Act declared that any mixed marriages â€Å"solemnized† after the Act was passed would be nullified. But how could that work in churches that did not accept divorce? A couple could be divorced in the eyes of the state and married in the eyes of the church. These arguments were not enough to stop the bill from passing, but a clause was added declaring that if a marriage was entered into in good faith but later determined to be â€Å"mixed† then any children born to that marriage would be considered legitimate even though the marriage itself would be annulled. Why Didn’t the Act Prohibit All Interracial Marriages? The primary fear driving the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act was that poor, working-class white women were marrying people of color. In actual fact, very few were. In the years before the act, only roughly 0.2–0.3% of marriages by Europeans were to people of color, and that number was declining. In 1925 it had been 0.8%, but by 1930 it was 0.4%, and by 1946 it was 0.2%. The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act was designed to protect white political and social dominance by preventing a handful of people from blurring the line between white society and everyone else in South Africa. It also showed that the National Party was going to fulfill its promises to protect the white race, unlike its political rival, the United Party, which many thought had been too lax on that issue. Anything taboo, however, can become attractive, just by virtue of being forbidden. While the Act was rigidly enforced, and the police endeavored to root out all illicit interracial relations, there were always a few people who thought that crossing that line was well worth the risk of detection. Repeal By 1977, opposition to these laws was growing in the still white-led South African government, dividing members of the liberal party during the government of Prime Minister John Vorster (Prime Minister from 1966–1978, president from 1978–1979). A total of 260 people were convicted under the law in 1976 alone. Cabinet members were divided; liberal members backed laws offering power-sharing arrangements to nonwhites while others, including Vorster himself, decidedly did not.  Apartheid was in its painfully slow decline. The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, along with the related Immorality Acts which prohibited extra-marital interracial sexual relations, was repealed on June 19, 1985. The set of apartheid laws were not abolished in South Africa until the early 1990s; a democratically elected government was finally established in 1994.   Sources Curbs on Interracial Sex and Marriage Divide South African Leaders. The New York Times, July 8, 1977.  Dugard, John. Human Rights and the South African Legal Order. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978.Furlong, Patrick Joseph.  The Mixed Marriages Act: a historical and theological study.  Cape Town: University of Cape Town, 1983.Higgenbotham, A. Leon Jr., and Barbara K. Kopytof. Racial purity and interracial sex in the law of colonial and antebellum Virginia. Georgetown Law Review 77(6):1967-2029. (1988–1989).  Hyslop, Jonathan, â€Å"White Working-Class Women and the Invention of Apartheid: Purified Afrikaner Nationalist Agitation for Legislation against Mixed Marriages, 1934-9† Journal of African History 36.1 (1995) 57–81.Jacobson, Cardell K., Acheampong Yaw Amoateng, and Tim B. Heaton. Inter-Racial Marriages in South Africa. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 35.3 (2004): 443-58.Sofer, Cyril. â€Å"Some Aspects of  Inter-racial  Marriage s in South Africa, 1925–46,†Ã‚  Africa,  19.3  (July 1949): 193. Wallace Hoad, Neville, Karen Martin, and Graeme Reid (eds.). Sex and Politics in South Africa: The Equality Clause / Gay Lesbian Movement / the Anti-Apartheid Struggle. Juta and Company Ltd, 2005.Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1949. (1949). Wikisource.

Liquid Nitrogen Facts, Safety and Uses

Liquid Nitrogen Facts, Safety and Uses Liquid nitrogen is a form of the element nitrogen thats cold enough to exist in a liquid state and is used for many cooling and cryogenic applications. Here are some facts about liquid nitrogen and crucial information about handling it safely. Liquid Nitrogen Facts Liquid nitrogen is the liquefied form of the element nitrogen thats produced commercially by the fractional distillation of liquid air.  Like nitrogen gas, it consists of two nitrogen atoms sharing covalent bonds (N2).Sometimes liquid nitrogen is denoted as LN2, LN, or LIN.A United Nations Number (UN or UNID) is a four-digit code used to identify  flammable  and harmful chemicals. Liquid nitrogen is identified as UN number 1,977.At normal pressure, liquid nitrogen boils at 77 K (−195.8 ° C or −320.4 ° F).The liquid-to-gas expansion ratio of nitrogen is 1:694, which means liquid nitrogen boils to fill a volume with nitrogen gas very quickly.Nitrogen is non-toxic, odorless, and colorless. It is relatively inert. It is not flammable.Nitrogen gas is slightly lighter than air when it reaches room temperature. It is slightly soluble in water.Nitrogen was first liquefied on April 15, 1883, by Polish physicists  Zygmunt Wrà ³blewski and Karol Olszewski.Liquid nitroge n is stored in special insulated containers that are vented to prevent pressure buildup. Depending on the design of the Dewar flask, it can be stored for hours or for up to a few weeks. LN2 displays the Leidenfrost effect, which means it boils so rapidly that it surrounds surfaces with an insulating layer of nitrogen gas. This is why spilled nitrogen droplets skitter across a floor. Liquid Nitrogen Safety choja / Getty Images When working with liquid nitrogen, taking safety precautions is paramount: Liquid nitrogen is cold enough to cause severe frostbite on contact with living tissue. You must wear proper safety gear when handling liquid nitrogen to prevent contact or inhalation of the extremely cold vapor. Cover and insulate skin to avoid exposure.Because it boils so rapidly, the phase transition from liquid to gas can generate a lot of pressure very quickly. Do not enclose liquid nitrogen in a sealed container, as this may result in it bursting or an explosion.Adding large quantities of nitrogen to the air reduces the relative amount of oxygen, which may result in an asphyxiation risk. Cold nitrogen gas is heavier than air, so the risk is greatest near the ground. Use liquid nitrogen in a well-ventilated area.Liquid nitrogen containers may accumulate oxygen that is condensed from the air. As the nitrogen evaporates, theres a risk of violent oxidation of organic matter. Liquid Nitrogen Uses Liquid nitrogen has many uses, mainly based on its cold temperature and low reactivity. Examples of common applications include: The freezing and transporting of food productsThe cryopreservation of biological samples, such as sperm, eggs, and animal genetic samplesUse as a coolant for superconductors, vacuum pumps, and other materials and equipmentUse in cryotherapy to remove skin abnormalitiesThe shielding of materials from oxygen exposureThe quick freezing of water or pipes to allow work on them when valves are unavailableA source of extremely dry nitrogen gasThe branding of cattleThe molecular gastronomy preparation of unusual foods and beveragesThe cooling of materials for easier machining or fracturingScience projects, including making liquid nitrogen ice cream, creating nitrogen fog, and flash-freezing flowers and subsequently watching them shatter when tapped onto a hard surface.

University education should be free Research Paper

University education should be free - Research Paper Example ss amount of money per public college student and state funding of the students and universities has been lowered or even cut to half as in California. â€Å"Education has long been seen as a principal source of economic mobility. But for years now public education, and especially public higher education has been under attack† (Reiff). Several educational reforms and financial planning could be carried out to make university education free for the students, because it would not only facilitate the students but also help in lowering the overall cost of educational budget. The fees for tuition, boarding have been inflating for the past 20 years, inspite of that the public universities have to make cuts in the various services and educational programmes in order to compensate for the deficiencies in the budget. Free university education for every person would be a possible solution to the current inflation and economic dearth. â€Å"Not means-tested, not cheap, not subsided, but free. For everybody† (Reiff). This could be made possible by implementing the tax payment, hypothetically 6 percent to the university which would provide the undergraduate degree. Those who earned more would pay more and who earned less would have to pay less, but at the end every person would have the privilege of having an undergraduate degree. Students will not have to work long hours in order to finance their university education, which not only affects their performance but also puts them under large debts they cannot pay (Reiff). Inability of United States to provide free higher education proves to be a downfall when compared to other developed countries which provide free university education. University education is not only an important determinant of the economic progress but also determines the employment rate in the state. â€Å"Currently, only 30% of Americans who start college or university end up graduating, and this represents a huge waste of time and money† (B. Samuels). If as

Strategic Corporate Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Strategic Corporate Finance - Essay Example There are several capital budgeting techniques that can be used by companies; NPV can be defined as the difference that exists between the present value of cash outflows and the present value of cash inflows. The technique is applicable in capital budgeting in the analsyiss of the profitability that is associated with an investment. The analsysis is usually sensistive to ythe future cashflows that are reliable that a project is likely to yield. The technique usually compares the value of a dollar at the current moment in regard to the same dollar in the future. The values must be inclusive of the effects of inflation and the rate of returns that are expectrsed from a project.a project that has a negative NPV should be rejected because the expected project would probably yield to a loss. In the available projects in the case of Yorkshire, both inshore and off shore prohjects should be rejected because they both have a negative NPV ammounty. That will mean that if the company goes ahead with the project, the company will end up getting losses. IRR can be defined as the discounting rate that is used in capital budgeting in an attempt to make the net present value of cashflows from a project equalto zero. The higher the IRR of a project, the more desirable a project is. IRR is therefore useful in the ranking of projecst that may be considered by a company. If all factors are constant, the project that yields the highest IRR should be considered and undertaken. Irr is also termed as economic rate of return. (ERR). Irr can be thought to be the rate of growth that a project is expected to generate. The IRR of a project can be compared agaibnsts the rates that are [prevailing in the securities matrkrt. If a company can not find a project that hjas an IRR that is greater than the retunrs, the company should prefer investing the retained earnings into the market. The working capital of a company is equivalent to the current assets less the current